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Over the past 20 years, research on the role of mathematical proficiency in academic and economic success has proliferated. Understanding how mathematical development and learning can be fostered in both in- and out-of-school settings is key to ensuring widespread numerical literacy. Much of what is known about how children develop mathematical knowledge and the educational practices that support such development come out of high-income countries. Widening the lens of research to include children and youth across languages, cultures, and contexts is essential to informing practices and policies across the globe. From pre-primary through primary grades, this chapter examines the increasing emphasis on supporting mathematical development in early childhood, efforts to move away from memorization-based instruction toward support of conceptual understanding, out-of-school influences on mathematical learning, and promising instructional practices.